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Carnes’s status as a parolee informs both sides of the
balance. Parolees do not enjoy the full panoply of rights
afforded the average citizen. See Morrissey, 408 U.S. at 494.
They have previously been found guilty of a crime, which
allows the state to impose "extensive restrictions" on their
liberty. Id. at 483. Similarly, they know that at any time,
they may be sent back to jail for conduct that would be
perfectly lawful for the average citizen.
In assessing the governmental interests side, many of the
concerns articulated in Knights with regard to probationers
are applicable. However, a brief account of statistics specific
to parolees is warranted. Parolees, like probationers, are far
more likely than the average citizen to commit a crime. In
1998, of 6,134,200 total persons under community
supervision, jail, or prison, 696,385 were on parole. U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Statistics, Probation and
Parole in the United States, 2001 NCJ 188208 (Washington
D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001), p. 3. In 1998, 42%
of parolees were returned to jail or prison and 9% absconded.
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Statistics, Probation
and Parole in the United States, 1998 NCJ 178234
(Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1999), p. 7.
In 1999, 14.4% of all Federal Parolees had their parole
terminated because of a new crime, 13.0% because of drug
use, and 4.3% because of their fugitive status. U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Statistics, Compendium of
Federal Justice Statistics, 1999 NCJ 186179 (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001), p. 97.
Assessing Carnes’s privacy interests, we look to Carnes’s
expectations when negotiating his parole agreement,
including Michigan Regulations applicable to him once he
accepted the terms of his parole. Comparing these facts with

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government cites United States v. Knights, 112 S. Ct. 587,
593 (2001).
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Paying particular attention to the facts of Knights’s case,
the Court rejected the proposition that the government can
search all probationers and parolees without a warrant and
probable cause. Rather, the Court described Knights’s own
probation search condition as a "salient circumstance"
affecting the "EDODQFH RI >WKH@ FRQVLGHUDWLRQV >ZKLFK@
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8QLWHG6WDWHVY6PLWK, 263 F.3d 571 (6th Cir. 2001). The
legality of a person’s possession cannot be the lynchpin of
their Fourth Amendment standing. Carnes thus had some
expectation of privacy in the six tapes seized at 1731 Harmon.

-- 13 of 14 --

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However, with respect to the seventh tape, the one found
under Kellum’s home, Carnes had no expectation of privacy.
Since the decision in Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347
(1967), it has been the law that "capacity to claim the
protection of the Fourth Amendment depends . . . upon
whether the person who claims the protection of the
Amendment has a legitimate expectation of privacy in
the invaded place." Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 143
(1978). A subjective expectation of privacy is legitimate
if it is " ‘one that society is prepared to recognize as
"reasonable," ’ " id., at 143-144, n.12, quoting Katz,
supra, at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).
Minnesota v. Olson, 495 U.S. 91, 95 (1990). Carnes never
lived at this house and certainly was not present in it or in
possession of the recorder or the tape when Kellum turned
them over to the police. It would be unreasonable for him to
claim an expectation of privacy with respect to something that
he had no control or dominion over. Therefore, we hold that
the district court properly admitted the seventh tape into
evidence.
D.
The government’s argument, relied upon by the district
court, that the special needs of law enforcement allowed the
government to seize and listen to the six tapes seized at 1731
Harmon, is unavailing. ,Q*ULIILQY:LVFRQVLQ483 U.S. 868
(1987), the Supreme Court IRXQG WKDW WKH XQLTXH
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At the suppression hearing, the government argued that the
tapes were seized to help establish a violation of the residency
requirement of Carnes’s parole agreement. See United States
v. Carnes, 51 F.Supp.2d 829 (E.D. Mich. 1999). The fact that
the tapes were not listened to until well after the parole
hearing shows that they were not originally seized, nor
subsequently listened to, pursuant to the special authority
granted the government for supervising parolees. Through all
stages of this case, the government has never offered a reason
why it did not listen to the tapes immediately after, or even
shortly after, they were seized. To the extent the government
now offers reasons why the tapes were originally seized, we
cannot entertain them. Where the government claims that
"special needs" of law enforcement justify an otherwise
illegal search and seizure, a court must look to the "actual
motivations of individual officers". See United States v.
Knights, 112 S. Ct. 587, 593 (2001); see also Griffin, 483
U.S. at 875 (suggesting that special needs searches must be
confined in scope). Here, there is no evidence that the
officers who seized the six tapes on January 14, 1997, were
motivated by a desire to establish a violation of the residency
requirement of Carnes’s parole agreement. Rather, the
government’s failure to listen to the tapes until well after the
parole hearing suggests some other motivation.
E.
Finally, the government argues that under the totality of the
circumstances, Carnes had a diminished expectation of
privacy such that the usual Fourth Amendment protections
were not applicable to him. For this proposition, the

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