Peo in Interest of DM

23CA1494 Peo in Interest of DM 04-03-2025

COLORADO COURT OF APPEALS

Court of Appeals No. 23CA1494
Larimer County District Court No. 23JD57
Honorable Daniel M. McDonald, Judge

The People of the State of Colorado,

Petitioner-Appellee,

In the Interest of D.M.,

Juvenile-Appellant.

JUDGMENT AFFIRMED

Division II
Opinion by JUDGE FOX
Gomez and Lum, JJ., concur

NOT PUBLISHED PURSUANT TO C.A.R. 35(e)
Announced April 3, 2025

Philip J. Weiser, Attorney General, Jessica E. Ross, Senior Assistant Attorney
General & Assistant Solicitor General, Denver, Colorado, for Plaintiff-Appellee

Madison R. Whitley, Alternate Defense Counsel, Denver, Colorado, for
Defendant-Appellant
¶1 Juvenile defendant D.M. appeals the district court’s judgment

adjudicating him for unlawful possession of financial devices,

unlawful possession of an identification document (I.D.), carrying

concealed weapons, and possession of a defaced handgun by a

juvenile. We affirm the adjudication.

I. Background

¶2 On March 21, 2023, around 8:30 a.m., Fort Collins police

officers responded to a 911 call for an in-progress home burglary.

The caller reported that his son, D.M., was trying to break into the

home. Police were already pursuing a warrant for D.M.’s arrest

because the father had called 911 the night before and reported

that D.M. had assaulted him, but the warrant had not been

approved yet.

¶3 Scott Brittingham, the first officer on the scene, testified that

when he arrived he saw someone on a bicycle outside the home.

Brittingham told the individual to stop, but the individual began to

pedal away and Brittingham pushed the individual off the bike. The

individual confirmed he was D.M. when he was on the ground.

1
¶4 When additional officers arrived they helped search D.M.,

testifying that they discovered an eighteen-inch-long knife,

described as a “machete,” a loaded handgun with the serial number

filed off, several credit and debit cards belonging to other people,

and someone else’s driver’s license. Police also discovered

“suboxone” strips.

¶5 D.M., who was seventeen at the time of his arrest but turned

eighteen soon after, faced eight delinquency counts for (1) assault in

the second degree with a deadly weapon1 for the assault the night

before; (2) criminal possession of financial devices for the credit and

debit cards; (3) carrying a concealed weapon for the gun;

(4) carrying a concealed weapon for the knife; (5) possession of a

defaced firearm; (6) possession of a handgun by a juvenile;

(7) criminal possession of an I.D. for the driver’s license; and

(8) unlawful possession of a controlled substance for the suboxone

strips.

1 The father told police he was hit in the head with a blunt “dark

metal object” that was “similar to a blackjack,” but this object was
never recovered.
2
¶6 After a bench trial, the court found that the prosecution met

its burden to prove counts 2 through 7, and adjudicated D.M.2 The

court sentenced D.M. to serve 165 days in jail, to be served

concurrently with his sentences in two other cases, with 135 days

of confinement credit.

¶7 This appeal followed, with D.M. challenging whether the court

erred by (1) concluding Brittingham had reasonable suspicion to

conduct an investigatory stop and seize D.M.; (2) converting the jury

trial into a bench trial; and (3) adjudicating D.M. for a class five

felony using expired financial devices and a difficult-to-read card.

We affirm the district court.

II. Analysis

A. Reasonable Suspicion

¶8 First, D.M. argues that Brittingham lacked reasonable

suspicion to justify an investigatory stop when he knocked D.M. off

his bike and seized him, and that the district court erred by denying

his motion to suppress the evidence gathered from the stop. D.M.

argues that Brittingham had no reason to believe that D.M. was the

2 As discussed in greater detail below in Part B, counts 1 and 8

were dismissed before trial.
3
suspect from the burglary report because he could not see D.M.’s

tattoos and shaved head as he was wearing a hoodie. Brittingham

could only say that the person he encountered matched D.M.’s

“physical frame” and height without other identifying details before

D.M. pedaled away.

¶9 The People argue that D.M. abandoned this issue because he

did not contest whether the prosecution presented sufficient

evidence to support the investigatory stop at the suppression

hearing. The People note that, instead, the defense focused on

suppressing statements D.M. made to police — even after the court

asked if there was “anything else” to address. Alternatively, the

People argue that D.M. forfeited the issue and plain error review

would apply. Finally, the People argue that the court did not err

regardless because Brittingham had sufficient evidence to establish

reasonable suspicion to stop D.M.

4
1. Additional Background

¶ 10 Ahead of trial D.M. moved to suppress the evidence gathered

from the stop and statements he made to police.3 At the

suppression hearing, Brittingham testified that he had been given

D.M.’s name and knew of the previous night’s assault when he

responded to the burglary call, but he was not involved in the

assault investigation. Brittingham testified he heard that D.M. was

“about five six” and “white with a shaved head and tattoos on his

arms.”

¶ 11 Brittingham arrived at the home and saw an individual

outside the home on a bike. Brittingham told the individual to stop

before pushing him off the bike. Brittingham asked if the individual

was “D.” and he said “yes,” before Brittingham placed D.M. in

handcuffs without resistance. Brittingham agreed that D.M., once

in handcuffs, was not free to leave.

3 The district court agreed to suppress statements D.M. made to

police after he was arrested and placed in a patrol car because D.M.
was a juvenile and the questioning occurred without a parent or
guardian, in violation of section 19-2.5-203(1), C.R.S. 2024. This is
not relevant to the issue on appeal, so we have largely omitted this
portion of the suppression hearing in this opinion.
5
¶ 12 The officers searched D.M. and found a knife on D.M.’s chest

and a gun in his pocket. They also emptied his pockets, discovering

the suboxone strips, credit and debit cards, and an I.D.

Brittingham testified that the searches were for safety purposes and

are standard procedure during an arrest. Brittingham also

confirmed the warrant for D.M.’s arrest for the assault or the

burglary had not been issued when he seized D.M.

¶ 13 The prosecution argued that Brittingham had reasonable

suspicion to seize D.M. because Brittingham understood that D.M.

had assaulted his father the night before at the same house as the

reported burglary, arrived at the home within minutes, and saw an

individual that roughly matched D.M.’s description leaving the

home by bicycle. D.M. then confirmed his name, giving Brittingham

probable cause to arrest him and conduct a search incident to

arrest for safety purposes without a warrant. The defense argued

that D.M.’s statements could not come in, even for impeachment,

but did not challenge reasonable suspicion for the initial stop or the

evidence police discovered in the search.

6
¶ 14 The court found that when Brittingham placed D.M. in

handcuffs D.M. was in custody and Brittingham had probable

cause to arrest D.M. for the alleged assault from the night before.

The court also found that D.M.’s search was incident to his arrest

and denied the motion to suppress the evidence (the gun, knife,

credit and debit cards, and I.D.) found during the search. Further,

the court found that asking D.M.’s name fell under Miranda’s

“booking” exception, and inquiring about weapons was for officer

safety. The court ended by asking if there was “anything else” and

the parties did not raise any further issues.

2. Waiver, Forfeiture, and Abandonment

¶ 15 Waiver is the “intentional relinquishment of a known right or

privilege,” but “[w]e ‘do not presume acquiescence in the loss of

fundamental constitutional rights, and therefore indulge every

reasonable presumption against waiver.’” People v. Rediger, 2018

CO 32, ¶ 39 (citation omitted). Waiver requires “an intentional

relinquishment of a known right or privilege” because “a waiver

extinguishes error, and therefore appellate review.” Id. at ¶ 40.

7
¶ 16 “Abandonment, in contrast, typically arises from a party’s

decision not to pursue or reassert a claim that the party had raised

previously” and will also extinguish appellate review. People v.

Smith, 2024 CO 3, ¶ 18; see also, e.g., People v. Ortega, 266 P.3d

424, 428 (Colo. App. 2011) (“We also deem abandoned any

additional contentions which Ortega raised in his postconviction

motion and which have not been pursued on appeal.”); People v.

Delgado, 2019 COA 55, ¶ 9 n.3 (“We deem abandoned, and won’t

address, the seven claims that defendant raised in his Rule 35(c)

motion but didn’t discuss on appeal.”).

¶ 17 Forfeiture, in turn, is “the failure to make the timely assertion

of a right” but this does not extinguish appellate review — forfeited

errors may be reviewed “under the plain error standard.” Rediger,

¶ 40 (citation omitted). “[W]hile a waiver requires intent, forfeiture

generally comes about through neglect.” People v. Garcia, 2024 CO

41M, ¶ 28. “We review de novo whether a claim is waived or

forfeited.” Id. at ¶ 29.

¶ 18 The People argue that the defense abandoned any challenge

relating to whether Brittingham had reasonable suspicion to

8
conduct the initial stop. While the defense did not argue this point

at the hearing, we decline to find that this amounts to an

intentional decision to relinquish a right or to not pursue a

previously raised claim. But we do conclude that D.M. forfeited this

challenge. See Rediger, ¶ 40.

¶ 19 D.M.’s written motion contesting his seizure and search (1)

recited relevant Fourth Amendment law without applying it to his

case, and (2) requested a suppression hearing without developing a

specific argument. See Phillips v. People, 2019 CO 72, ¶¶ 12-13

(requiring motions to suppress to “‘state with reasonable specificity

the legal grounds upon which [they] are based’ in order ‘to put the

prosecution on notice of the contentions it must be prepared to

meet at a suppression hearing and to inform the court of the issues

to be decided.’”) (citation omitted) (alteration in original). In the

suppression hearing D.M.’s counsel focused on the statements D.M.

made and not the evidence seized during the stop, and did not

contest whether Brittingham had reasonable suspicion for the stop.

The failure to specifically contest reasonable suspicion during the

hearing shows that while D.M. may not have intentionally waived or

9
abandoned this challenge, it was forfeited and is therefore subject

to plain error review. See Rediger, ¶ 40; see also Phillips, ¶¶ 15, 18,

22.

3. Standard of Review and Applicable law

¶ 20 “Plain error is obvious and substantial,” and we will only

reverse the district court “if the error ‘so undermined the

fundamental fairness of the trial itself so as to cast serious doubt

on the reliability of the judgment of conviction.’” Hagos v. People,

2012 CO 63, ¶ 14 (citations omitted). “In reviewing a trial court’s

ruling on a motion to suppress, we look solely to the record created

at the suppression hearing.” People v. Thompson, 2021 CO 15,

¶ 16.

¶ 21 “Arrests and investigatory stops are seizures that implicate

Fourth Amendment protections.” People v. Dacus, 2024 CO 51,

¶ 26. While “[b]oth the U.S. and Colorado Constitutions require

that searches and seizures by the government be supported by

probable cause[,]” police officers in some circumstances may

conduct investigatory stops “without offending the individual’s

constitutional protections against unreasonable seizures.” People v.

10
Brown, 2019 CO 63, ¶ 10. To conduct an investigatory stop police

officers must have “reasonable suspicion of criminal activity” — this

requirement is at issue in this appeal. Id. (citation omitted).

¶ 22 To meet this burden, police “must have ‘a specific and

articulable basis in fact for suspecting that criminal activity has

occurred, is taking place, or is about to take place.’” Id. (citation

omitted). When reviewing the constitutionality of an investigatory

stop, courts must “look to the totality of circumstances, keeping in

mind that ‘[a]n officer is entitled to draw reasonable inferences from

all the circumstantial evidence “even though such evidence might

also support other inferences.”’” Id. at ¶ 11 (citation omitted)

(alteration in original).

4. Application

¶ 23 In pushing D.M. off the bike, Brittingham seized him because

it became clear D.M. could not leave and his liberty was restrained.

See Outlaw v. People, 17 P.3d 150, 156 (Colo. 2001)

(“Representative examples of when a seizure occurs include ‘. . .

some physical touching of the person of the citizen.’”) (quoting

United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554 (1980)). Whether

11
Brittingham had reasonable suspicion depends on what he knew

then.

¶ 24 On his arrival, Brittingham knew that (1) a burglary allegedly

was, or had recently been, in progress; (2) the caller identified the

burglary suspect as D.M.; (3) D.M. had allegedly committed an

assault the night before at the same home; (4) D.M. was described

as “about five six . . . white with a shaved head and tattoos on his

arms”; (5) when he arrived at the address — just minutes after

dispatch — he saw an individual outside the home on a bicycle; (6)

the individual had “roughly [the suspect’s] frame” but was otherwise

covered by a jacket and hood; and (7) when he asked the individual

to stop, the individual tried to “pedal faster.”

¶ 25 These facts, collectively, show that under the totality of the

circumstances Brittingham had reason to suspect D.M. had

committed a crime and thus had reasonable suspicion to stop him.

See Brown, ¶ 10. Brittingham arrived at the home to investigate a

burglary in progress and was not on a routine patrol or searching

for unreported violations of the law in a high-crime area. See

Outlaw, 17 P.3d at 157 (“We have rejected the proposition that a

12
history of past criminal activity in an area is itself sufficient to

create a reasonable suspicion that a crime is being, has been, or

will be committed.”); see also Brown, ¶ 11 (a relevant factor is the

officer’s “knowledge or suspicion that the person . . . stopped has

been involved in some criminality of the type presently under

investigation”) (citation omitted). And D.M. was the only individual

directly outside the home minutes after the burglary was reported.

See Brown, ¶ 11 (other “nonexhaustive factors to be considered”

include the “size of the area in which the offender might be found,

as indicated by such facts as the elapsed time since the crime

occurred” and “the number of persons about in that area”) (citation

omitted). Finally, that Brittingham could not verify other

descriptors of D.M. due to D.M.’s hood and jacket is not dispositive.

See id. at ¶¶ 13-14 (even a total lack of a description of a suspect,

other than the reasonable conclusion that the person involved in an

alleged domestic disturbance was male, was not dispositive). That

D.M. roughly matched the description of the suspect and his

presence at the scene of the alleged burglary minutes after its

reporting support the existence of reasonable suspicion.

13
¶ 26 With that reasonable suspicion, when Brittingham stopped

D.M. he could ask his name and search him for weapons. See

People v. Archuleta, 980 P.2d 509, 513 (Colo. 1999) (during “an

investigatory stop, an officer may take reasonable measures

necessary to ensure his own safety”); see also Brown, ¶ 14 (Because

the officer had “a specific and articulable basis” to believe the

suspect was involved in a crime, “it was reasonable for the officer to

stop [the suspect] and ask him his name.”); see also § 16-3-103(1)

& -103(2), C.R.S. 2024 (police may stop suspects with reasonable

suspicion and ask for their name and may conduct a pat-down

search for weapons for personal safety). The district court did not

err, and certainly did not plainly err, by rejecting part of the

defense’s motion to suppress.

B. Discretionary Jury Trial

¶ 27 Next, D.M. argues that the district court erred by denying his

request for a jury trial. According to D.M., he was denied due

process because he detrimentally relied on the fact that he was

statutorily entitled to a jury trial under section 19-2.5-610(1),

C.R.S. 2024, and waived his speedy trial rights by requesting a jury

14
trial, before the prosecution moved to dismiss the charge for second

degree assault and the court converted the jury trial into a bench

trial. D.M. also contends that this violated his right to fundamental

fairness.

¶ 28 D.M. further contends that the court abused its discretion by

denying the discretionary request for a jury trial because it did not

elaborate as to why a bench trial equally protected his rights.

Additionally, D.M. contends the court abused its discretion because

it did not consider the impact of the prosecution’s dismissal of the

assault charge so close to trial, arguing this allows prosecutors to

charge juveniles with serious offenses before dismissing them, thus

delaying cases and giving the prosecution time to prepare while

juveniles remain in custody.

¶ 29 The People counter that the court’s decision to hold a bench

trial was discretionary, the court was not required to explain its

decision by referencing specific factors, and prosecutors had not

manipulated the system. The People also contend a bench trial

provided D.M. with the requisite fundamental fairness.

Furthermore, the People argue, the detrimental reliance doctrine

15
does not apply because there was no governmental promise for

D.M. to have detrimentally relied upon and D.M. did not suffer a

detriment.

¶ 30 Finally, the People argue that the longer wait for a jury trial

did not render the proceedings fundamentally unfair or result in a

longer period of pre-trial confinement because D.M. was in custody

on a separate charge while this case was pending.

1. Additional Background

¶ 31 Because D.M.’s charge for second degree assault with a deadly

weapon was a “crime of violence” pursuant to section 18-1.3-

406(2)(a)(II)(C), C.R.S. 2024, D.M. was entitled by statute to a jury

trial under section 19-2.5-610(1), if he wished. D.M. therefore

requested the matter be transferred to district court for a jury trial.

After the transfer, the defense confirmed that it was requesting “a

jury trial and we’re asking for six jurors” and that it “underst[ood]

speedy trial expands beyond the 60 days” pursuant to section 19-

2.5-610(4).4

4 The parties agreed that the speedy trial deadline would be October

27, 2023.
16
¶ 32 The jury trial was set for August 2, 2023, but on July 12 the

prosecution moved to dismiss the second degree assault and drug

charges. The prosecution also moved to vacate the jury trial,

arguing that without the assault charge D.M. was no longer

statutorily entitled to a jury trial. The prosecution asked the court

to exercise its discretion under section 19-2.5-610 to convert the

matter into a bench trial.

¶ 33 At a pretrial hearing the next day the defense maintained its

request for a jury trial, highlighting that jurors were called and

citing D.M.’s due process and equal protection concerns. The court

recognized the time it would take to try D.M. in a jury or bench trial

“isn’t a determinative factor or really even a factor [it] would

consider,” and recognized that proceeding with a bench or jury trial

was in its discretion.

¶ 34 The court did, however, express concern that D.M. had been in

custody since his arrest and would have passed his speedy trial

deadline had it not been extended after the jury trial request. In

response, the prosecution represented that the reason for

dismissing the assault charge was because D.M.’s father, the

17
victim, had stopped cooperating. Defense counsel noted, “I would

normally ask the court to reconsider bond. However, [D.M.] has a

hold out of Weld County that he can’t post, — so I’d rather him just

keep acquiring credit for the next three weeks.”

¶ 35 The court granted the prosecution’s motion to dismiss the two

counts and proceeded with a bench trial after finding that D.M.’s

rights would be protected.

2. Standard of Review and Applicable Law

¶ 36 We review a district court’s decision to grant or refuse a

juvenile a jury trial under section 19-2.5-610 for an abuse of

discretion. See A.C., IV v. People, 16 P.3d 240, 243 (Colo. 2001);

see also People in Interest of T.B., 2016 COA 151M, ¶ 60, aff’d, 2019

CO 53.5 “An abuse of discretion occurs when a trial court’s ruling

is manifestly arbitrary, unreasonable, or unfair, or if it misapplies

the law.” People v. Payne, 2019 COA 167, ¶ 5.

5 A.C., IV v. People, 16 P.3d 240 (Colo. 2001), and People in Interest

of T.B., 2016 COA 151M, cite to section 19-2-107, C.R.S. 2020, for
their analysis on discretionary juvenile jury trials. But section 19-
2-107 was repealed and relocated to section 19-2.5-610, C.R.S.
2024, by S.B. 21-059 in 2021. Ch. 136, sec. 6, § 19-2.5-610, 2021
Colo. Sess. Laws 607.
18
¶ 37 The “United States Supreme Court has determined that

despite the similarities of juvenile proceedings to civil proceedings,

due process requires that courts make certain protections offered to

adult criminal defendants available to alleged juvenile offenders.”

A.C., 16 P.3d at 242. Colorado has accordingly “adopted a ‘case-by-

case approach analyzing the nature of rights asserted by juveniles

under due process standards, giving appropriate weight to the

state’s interest in “informality, flexibility, or speed” in juvenile

proceedings.’” Id. at 242 (quoting People in Interest of T.M., 742

P.2d 905, 908 (Colo. 1987)).

¶ 38 Section 19-2.5-610’s allowance for discretionary jury trials is

part of this approach, and “enumerated the offenses that a jury . . .

[or] court must try. . . . [It] gives the trial judge discretion to

balance the benefits of informal, speedy and rehabilitative

proceedings against the severity of the offense, the nature of the

consequences and the particular facts of the case.” Id. at 244.

¶ 39 The U.S. Supreme Court held in McKeiver v. Pennsylvania, 403

U.S. 528, 543 (1971), that “the applicable due process standard in

juvenile proceedings . . . is fundamental fairness.” See also T.M.,

19
742 P.2d at 908 (adopting the “fundamental fairness” standard).

But juveniles have “no right to a jury trial in . . . delinquency

proceeding[s] under the due process clause of the federal

constitution” or the Colorado Constitution. T.M., 742 P.2d at 907,

909; see also A.C., 16 P.3d at 244-45. Furthermore, section 19-2.5-

610’s grant of discretion to the district court to allow or deny jury

trials for non-enumerated offenses “is not so fundamentally unfair

as to violate the juvenile’s due process rights.” A.C., 16 P.3d at

244.

3. Application

¶ 40 A bench trial did not violate D.M.’s due process rights or

fundamental fairness principles because juveniles are not

constitutionally entitled to jury trials — the U.S. and Colorado

Supreme Court have already rejected D.M.’s contentions in this

respect. See McKeiver, 403 U.S. at 543; T.M., 742 P.2d at 907, 909;

see also A.C., 16 P.3d at 244-45. And the district court did not

abuse its discretion when it converted D.M.’s jury trial into a bench

trial.

20
¶ 41 D.M. was initially statutorily entitled to a jury trial, § 19-2.5-

610(1), but once the charges fell outside the statute’s reach it was

within the district court’s discretion to allow a jury trial or bench

trial. See A.C., 16 P.3d at 244. And the court considered (but did

not heavily weigh) the prosecution’s efficiency arguments and the

speedy trial concerns the late dismissal presented.

¶ 42 Section 19-2.5-610(1) does not, as D.M. contends, require that

the court detail its reasoning by referencing specific considerations

or factors. See T.B., ¶¶ 58-63 (when the court denied the juvenile’s

motion for a jury trial “without making any factual findings” the

court did not abuse its discretion as “it did not deprive him of any

rights”). And a discretionary bench trial does not deprive juveniles

of their rights. See id. Thus, the decision to convert D.M.’s jury

trial into a bench trial was “within a range of reasonable options”

and was not an abuse of discretion. See id. at ¶ 61.

¶ 43 We also reject D.M.’s contentions that the district court’s

decision violated D.M.’s due process rights or fundamental fairness

because of his detrimental reliance on his statutory right to a jury

trial. “The basis for enforcing promises the prosecution makes to a

21
defendant is found in the due process clause of the fourteenth

amendment and its requirement that an accused ‘be treated with

“fairness” throughout the [criminal] process.’” People v. Macrander,

756 P.2d 356, 359 (Colo. 1988) (citation omitted) (alteration in

original). The first factor to consider “in ascertaining the existence

and extent of a defendant’s right to enforcement of a governmental

promise [is]: whether a promise was made to the defendant by a

governmental official with apparent authority to bind the

government.” People v. Romero, 745 P.2d 1003, 1010 (Colo. 1987).

¶ 44 Here the government made no promises to D.M. in exchange

for D.M. waiving his speedy trial rights. D.M.’s request for a jury

trial was a strategic decision made without promises from the

prosecution and with the knowledge that it would extend the speedy

trial deadline. And when the assault charge was dismissed, it was

the court’s decision whether to proceed with a jury trial or not.

While the prosecution requested a bench trial, it had no control

over the outcome. There was simply no “promise” that D.M. could

have detrimentally relied on for the doctrine to apply.

22
¶ 45 Finally, while we share the district court’s concern about D.M.

remaining in custody longer, there is no evidence that this was the

result of bad faith or manipulation by the prosecution. See People

v. McMurtry, 101 P.3d 1098, 1101 (Colo. App. 2003), aff’d on other

grounds, 122 P.3d 237 (Colo. 2005). The prosecution wanted to

pursue the assault charge but D.M.’s father’s non-cooperation

prevented it from doing so. It was ultimately the district court’s

decision to proceed with a bench trial.

¶ 46 The district court did not abuse its discretion.

C. Expired Financial Devices

¶ 47 Finally, D.M. argues that the district court erred when it

convicted him of a class 5 felony for possession of four or more

“financial devices” (stolen credit and debit cards) under section 18-

5-903(2)(c), C.R.S. 2023,6 when several of the cards were expired,

because expired cards cannot meet the definition of a financial

6 In October 2023 the Colorado legislature amended section 18-5-

903(2)(c), C.R.S. 2023, with H.B. 23-1293, to make the possession
of “three or more financial devices, of which at least two are issued
to different account holders, . . . a class 5 felony.” Ch. 298, sec. 23,
§ 18-5-903(2)(c), 2023 Colo. Sess. Laws 1787. In this opinion we
cite to the version of section 18-5-903(2)(c) in effect at the time of
D.M.’s arrest and trial.
23
device under section 18-5-901(6), C.R.S. 2024. Further, D.M.

argues that the court erred when it found that an expiration date on

one of the cards showed the year “25” because the date is illegible.

¶ 48 The People counter that the court’s factual findings concerning

the date on the card are reviewed for clear error, and D.M. has

failed to show clear error. The People also contend that, under the

applicable statutes, credit and debit cards meet the definition of a

financial device whether active or expired. Thus, the court’s factual

and legal findings were not erroneous.

1. Additional Background

¶ 49 After the prosecution’s case in chief, the defense moved for a

judgment of acquittal. The defense argued, in part, that the

prosecution had not met its burden to show that D.M. unlawfully

possessed four or more financial devices because only three of the

credit and debit cards listed expiration dates after the time of D.M.’s

arrest, and expired cards cannot meet the definition of a financial

device in section 18-5-901(6). The defense asked for the charge to

be dismissed or at least reduced to a misdemeanor.

24
¶ 50 A financial device is “any instrument or device that can be

used to obtain cash, credit, property, services, or any other thing of

value or to make financial payments, including but not limited to”

credit and debit cards. §§ 18-5-901(6), -901(6)(a). And section 18-

5-903(1) makes it unlawful to possess financial devices “that the

person knows, or reasonably should know, to be lost, stolen, or

delivered under mistake.” The unlawful possession of one or more

financial devices is a class 2 misdemeanor, § 18-5-903(2)(a), and in

2023 the criminal possession of “four or more financial devices, of

which at least two are issued to different account holders,” was a

class 5 felony, § 18-5-903(2)(c).

¶ 51 The court found that the above statutes do not explicitly

clarify whether an expired credit or debit card is a financial device

that “can be used to obtain cash, credit, property, services, or any

other thing of value or to make financial payments.” § 18-5-901(6).

But sections 18-5-702(1) & -702(1)(a), C.R.S. 2024, criminalize the

“unauthorized use of a financial transaction device if [a person]

uses such device for the purpose of obtaining cash, credit, property,

or services or for making financial payment, with intent to defraud”

25
with notice that the “device has expired, has been revoked, or has

been canceled.”7 As a result, the court concluded that expired

credit and debit cards could be financial devices because a contrary

interpretation would mean that the possession of an expired

financial device could never be a crime but it would be a crime to

try to use an expired financial transaction device, noting that the

“two concepts are at odds with one another.”

¶ 52 The court also found that there were a sufficient number of

unexpired credit and debit cards to make the question moot. Of the

nine cards police found on D.M. that could have been financial

devices shown in the prosecution’s Exhibit 3 (a color photo of the

cards laid out on a table), three were clearly valid credit or debit

cards that expired after D.M.’s arrest. Five cards, however, either

had no dates or were too difficult to read in the photo to know for

sure. The card that tipped the balance was a “Netspend” card,

which the court — viewing a color photograph marked Exhibit 3 —

7 The definition of a “financial transaction device” in part 7 differs

from a “financial device” in part 9, but does specify that it includes
credit and debit cards that “can be used to obtain cash, goods,
property, or services.” § 18-5-701(3), C.R.S. 2024.
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found had a legible expiration year of “25” despite being admittedly

“hard to see.” Thus, the court found four cards sufficient to

support an adjudication for count 2.

2. Standard of Review and Applicable Law

¶ 53 We review a district “court’s legal conclusions de novo and its

findings of fact for clear error[.] Under the clear error standard, a

trial court’s ‘factual findings are “binding unless so clearly

erroneous as not to find support in the record.”’” People v. Turner,

2022 CO 50, ¶ 19 (citations omitted).

3. Application

¶ 54 We need not decide whether an expired credit or debit card

can qualify as a financial device because the district court’s factual

findings concerning the Netspend card were not clearly erroneous.

¶ 55 When reviewing photographic or video evidence we are

sometimes “in the same position as the district court to review the

details of the photographs” or videos and may therefore review them

and their legal implications de novo. People v. Shanks, 2019 COA

160, ¶ 50; see also People v. Liebler, 2022 COA 21, ¶ 21 (“Where

there is a video recording of the relevant events . . . , we are in the

same position as the jury . . . .”). But we must also consider
27
whether differing interpretations of a photograph or video are

reasonable depending on factors such as the “quality, the lighting

and angle, and whether [they are] a complete depiction of the events

at issue.” Liebler, ¶ 22 (citing Love v. State, 73 N.E.3d 693, 699-

700 (Ind. 2017)) (directing that “[i]n cases where the video evidence

is somehow not clear or complete or is subject to different

interpretations, we defer to the trial court’s interpretation”).

¶ 56 Three of the nine credit and debit cards were clearly not

expired, a finding supported by Exhibit 3. But our scanned copy of

Exhibit 3 is admittedly blurry in places and the Netspend card’s

expiration date is difficult to make out. Yet the district court, with

the benefit of a physical photo, did not express much doubt that the

expiration date read “25,” noting that “even though it’s hard to see,

the bottom righthand Netspend card I believe has an expiration

date of ’25.”

¶ 57 We cannot say that the district court’s finding was

unreasonable or clearly erroneous. Under the circumstances we

may not “substitute our own judgment for that of the trial court.”

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People v. Pitts, 13 P.3d 1218, 1221 (Colo. 2000); see also Liebler,

¶ 22; Love, 73 N.E.3d at 699-700.

¶ 58 Because the district court found that the Netspend card’s

expiration year was “25,” there were four non-expired cards

necessary to support a felony adjudication under section 18-5-

903(2)(c), making the expired cards issue moot. See Galvan v.

People, 2020 CO 82, ¶ 49 (we may not issue advisory opinions on

hypothetical fact situations). The district court did not err.

III. Disposition

¶ 59 We affirm the district court’s adjudication.

JUDGE GOMEZ and JUDGE LUM concur.

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